Here is the result of two year's of research, a paper entitled "Comics in the Classroom as Educational Tools and Literature", although I like the blog's title a lot more.
ABSTRACT
ACKNKOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
CHAPTER 3 DISCUSSION
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS
REFERENCES
Thursday, December 16, 2010
REFERENCES
References
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Dorn, L. (2005). Teaching for deep comprehension. Stenhouse Publishers.
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Hibbing, A. N., & Rankin-Erickson, J. L. (2003, May 1). A picture is worth a thousand words: Using visual images to improve comprehension for middle school struggling readers. The Reading Teacher, 56(8), 758-770.
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Krashen, S. (2004). The power of reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishing Co. and West Libraries Unlimited.
Kunzle, D. (2007). Rodolphe Töpffer, father of the comic strip. University of Mississippi Press.
Leckbee, J. (2005, Summer). I got graphic! using visual literature works! Young Adult Library Service, 3(3), 30-31.
Lee, S., & Mair, G. (2002). Excelsior! the amazing life of Stan Lee. New York, NY: Fireside.
Lyga, A. A. W. (2006, March 1). Graphic novels for (really) young readers. School Library Journal, pp. 56-61.
Mackey, M. (2003, July 1). Researching new forms of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(3), 403-407.
Malan, D. (2006). The complete guide to Classics Illustrated. Classics Central.
Marzano, R. J. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research based strategies for increasing student acheivment. Association of Supervision & Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Association of Supervision & Curriculum Development.
McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics: The invisible art. New York: Harper Collins & Kitchen Sink Press.
McCloud, S. (2000). Reinventing comics: How imagination and technology are an art form. New York: Harper Collins.
McCloud, S. (2006). Making comics: Storytelling secrets of comics, manga, and graphic novels. New York: Harper Collins.
McTaggert, J. (2005, October 1). Using comics to encourage reluctant readers. Reading Today, p. 46.
McVicker, C. J. (2007, Spring). Comic strips as a text structure for learning reading. The Reading Teacher, 61(1), 85-88.
McVicker, C. J., & Frank, J. (1944, December 1). What's in the comics? Journal of Educational Sociology, 18(4), 214-222.
Petrucha, S. (2008, January 1). On writing (and reading) the graphic novel. Knowledge Quest, 36(3), 60-63.
Rall, T. (2004, June 1). Drawing behind the lines. Foreign Policy, 142, 72-74+76.
Reynalds, R. (2006). Superheroes: A modern mythology. University of Mississippi Press.
Rudiger, H. M. (2006, March 1). Reading lessons: Graphic novels 101. The Horn Book Magazine, pp. 126-134.
Rudiger, H. M., & Schliesman, M. (2007, November 1). Graphic novels and school libraries. Knowledge Quest, 36(2), 57-59.
Sanderson, P. (2004, August 1). True tales: From bee behavior to the life of Buddha, not all comics are ficiton. School Library Journal, 50(8), 14-19.
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Seyfried, J. (2008, January 1). Reinventing the book club: Graphic novels as educational heavyweights. Knowledge Quest, 36(3), 44-48.
Simon, J. (2003). The comic book makers. Vanguard.
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Smetana, L., Odelson, D., Burns, H., & Grisham, D. L. (2009, November 1). Using graphic novels in the high school classroom: Engaging deaf students with a new genre. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 53(3), 228-240.
Smith, M. S. (2008). Art Spiegelman (Interview with Art Spiegelman for Indie Bound). Retrieved April 1, 2010, from Indiebound.org: http://www.indiebound.org/author-interviews/spiegelmanart.
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Thompson, T. (2008). Adventures in graphica: Using comics and graphic novels to teach comprehension, 2-6. Stenhouse Publishers.
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Weiner, S. (2006). The 101 best graphic novels. Nantier Beall Minoustichine Publishing.
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Wertham, F. (1955, April 9). It's still murder: What parents still don't know about comic books. The Saturday Review, 11-12, 46-48.
Williams, R. M. (2008, November 1). Image, text, and story: Comics and graphic novels in the classroom. Art Education, pp. 13-19.
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CHAPTER 4 DISCUSSION
Summary
History
Sequential art as a means of telling a narrative has existed with mankind since before written language, but the current American art form of the comic book and its latest evolution, the graphic novel, have been developing over 70 years (McCloud, 1993.) Comics quickly became popular and commonplace, as well as a source of study with the promise of educational use (Yang, 2003). However, comics where produced without quality standards by inexperienced teenage artists and writers in a multitude of genres including ones that were not child nor parent friendly (Hajdu, 2008). The reputation of the format fell into serious jeopardy in the 1950s when comics were scapegoated as the reason for rising juvenile delinquency and fell victim to a national panic. The industry then took the worst step it possibly could and censored itself using the Comics Code, which would regulate comics into general banality for the next thirty years.
Comics once again became the source of academic study in the 1970s, but the format was no longer as universal as it had been before the enactment of the Comics Code in 1954 and its reputation had never recovered. Slowly the Comics Code lost relevance in the eighties while the graphic novel took center stage. Books like Watchman and Maus finally created a market for book length comics which were every bit as capable as their cousin, the traditional novel, in delivering a poignant narrative that reflected humanity. However, comics still suffer from their reputation as a sub-class of literature until this very day.
It is the history of moral panic and the unsubstantiated idea that comics are not reading that holds back the use of comics as an educational tool. We now have over 50 years of cultural dogma telling us that comics are “not reading” and not literature worthy of study, much less instruction. “Too often educators exclude graphic novels solely because of the format or the erroneous impression that all graphic novels focus on supernatural horror stories or are expressions of the male power fantasy. (Bucher & Manning, 2004).”
Wertham (1954) was probably justified in being alarmed at the content of horror comics and some of the crime comics he was studying. A parental advisory or rating system would have helpful and all major publishers use one today. However, he attacked the entire format and created what could only be called a witch-hunt based on fallacious arguments and poor science.
The slowly changing attitude is evident in the increasing number of graphic novels available in libraries and bookstores. However, public education practice has a history of holding onto archaic and dogmatic ideas long past their need or efficacy. We have updated our language arts curriculum from the days of obscure basal readers and class recitations. Should not this artifact of the fifties, that comics are harmful as literature, be abandoned as well?
Literature
At one point of time, most comics were quickly produced, ill-conceived, and A poor quality product that did not warrant any reputation better than “sometimes good.” After the Comics Code and greatly reduced sales, comic creators began to seriously work on their craft and the quality of comics rose sharply to compete for fewer and fewer dollars. Slowly, the industry recovered and became synonymous with the superhero genre, despite the plurality of genres it used to host. The Comics Code effect began to wane as companies increasingly ignored it.
Now, comics are a highly developed craft that is continuing to grow and progress. “. . . Publication of a large number of critically acclaimed, curriculum-related graphic novels during the last decade that address history, politics, literature, and social issues help validate this format and justify its inclusion in any school library collection. (Gorman, 2003, p. 20).” Graphic novels touch on a range of subjects and genres, the two most notable being autobiography and comic book journalism, with the caveat that many superhero stories are still being created or collected and reprinted. Graphic novels have become commonplace in libraries, have their own sections in bookstores, are reviewed by magazines and websites, receive awards, and are frequently source material for motion pictures and other media. Comics have entered into the mainstream and continue to gain both acceptance and importance. Even if the unlikely scenario of a student maturing to reading only comics as an adult happens, there is a growing number of excellent graphic novels for a student to read that have credible literary merit.
Reading Qualities
Comics have several important reading qualities. They are excellent source material for a number of possible lessons and a growing number of books like Adventures in Graphica with specific lesson plans are arriving. Comics are easily usable for mini-lessons, guided readings, reading conferences (Thompson, 2008), while any quality graphic novel can be used as a book for virtually any reading assignment. Comics lend themselves well to particular skills and concepts, from onomatopoeia and plot, to more difficult skills like summarizing or inferencing (McCloud, 2006; Smetana, Odelson, Burns & Grisham, 2009; Ranker, 2007; Thompson, 2008). “. . . Educators have found that graphic novels are able to teach readers about literary techniques such as plot, conflict, setting, character, and even foreshadowing and flashbacks (Foster, 2004, p. 32).”
The greatest strength is clearly the appeal to reluctant readers (Krashen, 2004). Whether the attraction is the picture support, the subversive nature of reading a comic instead of a “real book”, or just the plain fun of it, comics are books that get read (Curriculum Review, 2004). Reluctant readers who become comic book readers will transition to more traditional texts, increase vocabulary, improve reading skills, and improve achievement in other areas. The same is true for students who read in volume, even if that reading consists of comics (Krashen, 2004). If, in the unlikely event, a student ends up reading only graphic novels, they still have an excellent selection to choose from that grows annually.
Multimodal Literacy
Comics may be the solution to the quandary of dealing with the changing scope of literacy. Students will not need to know how to read only pictureless fiction, although our education system seems to focus on that. Comics integrate pictures and words in a highly developed grammar that emulates a growing number of possible texts and electronic documents children have to read, both in the present and future (Teale, Kim & Boerman-Cornell, 2008). Further, comics are accessible and permanent, not requiring an internet connection, battery, or power outlet for use (Yang, 2003). There are a growing number of seminars by comics creators for computer programmers and web designers, indicating that there is a commonality.
Graphic novels are now appearing in popular magazines and in book stores with ever increasing sales. Instruction in comic reading may become less of an option, and more of a need if the current trend continues and graphic novels become common literature. “This revitalized genre has not only saved the day for recreational reading, it has also turned out to be a heavyweight in the teaching of advanced themes in literature and visual literacy (Seyfried, 2008).”
Social Relevance
Comics have, almost since the beginning, addressed social issues. The current trend toward comic-journalism makes comics a poignant way to address issues. "Today, comics is one of the very few forms of mass communication in which individual voices still have a chance to be heard(McCloud, 1993, p. 197)." Using student generated comics to address social issues seems equally powerful (Bitz, 2006).
Conclusions
Is it literature? There was a time in which the vast majority of comics could not be considered literature by any reasonable standard. That day is long gone and quality comics that are worthy reads by students have now been produced for decades. Comics have a unique grammar that allows them to not only have the same depth as pictureless text, but to accomplish complexity that pictureless text simply cannot.
"If reading is to lead to any meaningful knowledge or comprehension, readers must approach a text with an understanding of the relevant social, linguistic and cultural conventions. . . if you really consider how the pictures and words work together in consonance to tell a story, you can make the case that comics are just as complex as any other kind of literature (Tilley, 2008, para. 7 )."
Impact of the Comics Code
Before Wertham’s 1954 book Seduction of the Innocent comics where a constant source of study by the academic community with consideration to their applications in education (Yang, 2003). This included notable researchers such as Thorndike and two issues of the Journal for Educational Sociology were dedicated to the topic. Then Seduction of the Innocent, and the array of articles before and after created a moral panic in which the growing comic industry was scapegoated (Hajdu, 2008). Wertham’s work was a classic example of fearmongering and false assertion in action. After the book, magazine articles, book burnings, local and state banning, and a congressional hearing all based more on McCarthy-era paranoia than science (Hajdu, 2008), comics were not studied again until nearly thirty years later. Although this period, like the one in the 1940s, provided promise to the application of comics in the classroom there was no broad movement to include them in the classroom with the exception of lesson plans and comics produced by Archie comics for classroom use.
Two of comics greatest creators well noted for their excellent collaborations, Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, began their own company in 1954 while the debate for comics ensued. They made four titles, each one aimed at adult readers and each in a different popular comics genre of the day: Romance, western, war, and crime (Beerbahm, 1998). Despite two of the greatest comic talents who were best known for their work together at a time when both were entering their prime, Mainline comics failed within a year due to the impact of the Comic Code (Simon, 2003). It is a simple example of how a new American art form was stunted in its prime by the Comics Code; without it Mainline and many others would have likely been a success and progressed the field of comics further than the narrow definition it suffered from for the next thirty years. It is a clear and obvious casualty of the Code and an example of the sort of progress that it stopped (Hajdu, 2008; Simon, 2003).
There is a definite disparity in the treatment for comics and other forms of literature and media, an iron-clad restraint that stood firm for almost thirty years and is still in use today with little change. Furthermore, the presence and success of the underground comix movement after the enactment of the code shows that the medium was still vigorous, and not an artifact of the war years. Without restraints, the comix movement produced a body of literature that was popular, well-read, and though provoking, giving creators such as Harvey Pekar a voice.
Recommendations
Older Studies
Comparisons of numbers of words per page and rare words rates between comics and other books date back to Thorndike’s 1941 study and continue with Gary Wright’s study in 1979. The Wright study has been elaborated on by various researchers, notably Krashen, but there have not been any who have attempted a new list of rare words in over 40 years. This word study is worth a new look, given the changes of both comic books and other book forms since the late 1970s.
Given a possible link between Marzano’s recommendations of increasing wide reading experiences for students and combining visual imagery for direct vocabulary instruction, a fascinating area of study would be the use of comics as vocabulary tools. The dual properties of being appealing reading for even reluctant readers and the use of imagery directly married to the text promises rich results.
Furthermore, many studies for comics happened long ago. The 1940s and 1970s were periods in which there have been numerous comic studies. Many of these tests held great promise, and bear repeating. Comic books as a format have advanced significantly since that time, but much of that advancement has been away from children as an audience. The work of Thorndike (1941) in vocabulary, Sones (1944) and Hutchinson (1949) in comprehension, Gruenberg (1944) and Haugaard (1973) in social and cultural issues, and Wright (1979) work all has relevance to today, but requires a modern look for true validity.
Although there is indication that comics turn reluctant readers into full fledged readers (Krashen, 2004), there has been no study that has followed this progression. We know reluctant readers like to read comics (Curriculum Review, 2004), and we know that comics should create better readers (Krashen, 2003). However, we are lacking data that shows that problem readers benefit directly from using comics as a reading medium. A study of improvements reluctant readers may experience from the introduction of comics as reading material is warranted. Since Sones’ study in 1944 indicating comics led to improved reading comprehension, no one has attempted to see if modern comics has the same effect.
Although an American art form, comics have found a home in foreign countries. France, Belgium, and Japan all have a sizeable comics industry. None of these nations went through a period of censorship, as America did, and have a high rate of adult readership (Leckbee, 2005). No articles by Japanese researchers were found in this study. If there is none, there is a tremendous opportunity because comics are a large part of modern Japanese culture already.
Reading Level
There is an indication that younger readers, in first through third grade, enjoy comic book reading even though these books are usually written on a higher level (Scholastic, 2008). It is well-known pedagogy that texts that readers find challenging but not overwhelming are important to improving a student’s reading level (Dorn, 2005). It is possible to see how students would fare reading higher level texts in a comic format. For decades children read Classics Illustrated, when reading the texts they portrayed could be impossible at their reading level.
Creator Contentions
Art Speigelman, Alan Moore, and Greg Yang are all comic creators who have beliefs about comics that bear further study. Speigelman believes comics are self-teaching (Smith, 2008), that readers learn how to read and comprehend a comic simply by doing it. Alan Moore has made the fascinating contention that comics cause information to be processed by both sides of the brain simultaneously (Sanderson, 2004). Would brain scans prove this contention, having a subject reading traditional texts and comic texts and comparing the two? Yang (2003) contends that, unlike other media in which words and pictures are integrated, comics have permanence. Whereas a film, television show, or electric documents must be accessed via a device, a comic is unique in that the page is static and does not change, giving the reader a better ability to figure out the content. This assertion is sound logic, but could be better researched.
Adaptations and Specialized Texts
Comics have been excellent at showing biography and especially autobiography, such as the work of Harvey Pekar and David Small. Adaptations of literatures can also be effectively done with comics (Petrucha, 2008). Comics have Classics Illustrated adapted classic literature, nearly all fiction, into the comic format with tremendous success. There have also been recent attempts at adapting some texts to a graphic novel format, mostly children’s fiction such as the Artemis Fowl, Goosebumps, The Babysitter’s Club, and Nancy Drew series of books. The classic Johnny Tremain, a Caldecott award-winning book about the Revolutionary War, could include actual images of the historic people and places involved with researched footnotes that are not in the original text. Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew could contain a visual description of the famous marriage scene as it is described, the original text does not actually put the scene on the stage.
It seems that adapting biographies and autobiographies into a comic format is a natural step to take. Virtually any biography could be adapted and give the reader a strong visual sense of the person’s life along with each and every word of the original text. These adaptations would have the benefit of being able to show the reader the artist’s interpretation of what the world looked like at the time, providing for immediate footnotes within the panel, and can provide a level of subtext that the original texts could not. “Unlike more ‘traditional’ literature, comic books are able to quite literally ‘put a human face’ on a given subject. That is, comic books blend words and pictures so that, in addition to reading text, readers ‘see’ the characters through the illustrations (Versaci, 2001, p. 62).”
Needless to say, such texts would be very helpful to education and are likely to appeal to the already existing library market. It is even possible to make new inferences in the manner of the adaptation. The work of Robert Sikoryak and Alan Moore show that a confluence of adaptation and artwork can produce new meanings and further investigate older ideas and characters. (Versaci, 2007).
“Librarians’ recent discovery of the graphic novel has expanded the form’s marketplace and . . .has sparked the creation of new imprints devoted to the genre by established publishers of books for young readers (Cart, 2006, p. 44).” Many of these are already adaptable to the classroom environment. There are numerous treatments of mythology available, and Beowulf has received two notable treatments since 2004. Comic books that teach scientific lessons are also appearing “Some graphic nonfiction sets out to teach lessons directly, although in a far wittier, more entertaining way than the standard textbook (Sanderson, 2004, p. 15).” There are now a great number of biographies both on historic and current public figures, and multiple series of books on mythology being created with classrooms in mind. It would be wise of the comic book industry to make efforts to educate teachers during conferences, via professional development, and through articles about the value of comics in order to open up a market of books developed for classroom use. The greatest fear here, however, is quality. The moment comics seem like basal readers they will lose that particular, almost subversive, edge they currently enjoy. It is vital that any such adaptations retain a strong sense of creator voice and remain art as well as usable text.
Reading Comprehension
Numerous authors point to the text support that is provided by pictures, paneling, lettering, and the grammar of comics itself (Harvey, 2000; Keene, 1997; Miller, 2002). These arguments are all well reasoned and logical, but none of them actually quantify it. It would be fascinating to actually take a text and adapt it to the comic book format and then study how both versions perform for comprehension. Sones’ 1944 study that compared students reading a traditional text on Clara Barton and students reading a comic book version that showed improvement in reading comprehension with the comic book readers opens a line of research that has not been followed.
Reluctant Readers Become Volume Readers
“Many writers agree that graphic novels could be that special something that provides interest and that a teenager connects with (Snowball, 2005, p. 43).” Comics are an ideal medium for volume reading. Students have a text that they are highly motivated to read, that is often an accessible reading level with the most picture cue support available; they contain more rare words than even adult books, and frequently have passages at very high reading levels. This gives students an excellent reading “workout” in which they have an excellent chance to understand what they are reading, to read a high rate of new vocabulary words in context, and to have challenging text occur in small passages. “Educationally speaking, graphic novels give the brain more of a workout per sentence than any other type of media, including conventional books(Lyga, 2006, p. 58)” Volume reading, including volume reading of comics, leads not only to improved reading scores, but improvements in all other academic disciplinary areas as well. (Krashen, 2004) “I believe graphic novels represent an excellent opportunity to get students hooked on the written word, which can only be a good thing in the end (Ching, 2005, p. 19).”
New Literacy
“[The] graphic novel continues to grow, both economically and artistically (Cart, 2006, p. 44)” The long list of graphic novels that portray humanity in a touching, intelligent, and academic way continues to grow. Many graphic novels are well researched, contain bibliographies, and stand up to academic rigor. Comic journalism has become a fast growing genre within the format. Biographies and autobiographies continue to show both human and historical issues with surprising clarity. There is something about the format of comics that makes these stories even more poignant that other mediums often seem capable of. “Thematic structure, the use of metaphor, simile, exaggeration, and other literary tools, are not abandoned within a graphic novel, but rather enhanced by the ethical underpinning and multicultural perspective the artist brings to the table (Leckbee, 2005, p. 30).”
Social Issues
Although individual comics have been tackling social issues for decades (Crawford, 2007) this has little effect on the classroom. It simply suggest that comics are capable of such. Of greater interest to education are the increasing number of graphic novels that address social issues, historical events, and modern journalism (Gravett, 2005; Weiner, 2006). These are already seeing some use in a very small number of classrooms (Chun, 2009). “Graphic nonfiction is a unique medium for presenting history and biography in a vivid, immediate way (Sanderson, 2004, p. 14).” The question is if they will find more widespread use, are teachers familiar with them, and are teachers and parents open to their use? A study of teacher knowledge and attitude toward comics and graphic novels would be helpful to see if this is an obstacle that must be surmounted. The industry itself could take this opportunity to sponsor teacher education, such as lecturers at reading conferences, and sell graphic novels to a new market in that fashion.
Using comics as a format for students to address social issues comes strongly recommended. The Comic Book Project has shown repeatedly that inner-city students can produce impressive work that directly addresses today’s social issues. (Bitz, 2003). “My experiences confirm that comics are a powerful way for students to envision the future, understand historical events, explore their own narratives, develop empathy, and learn about images, text, technology, and design (Williams, 2008, p. 18).”
As Tools for the Classroom
Comics may be used in the classroom. Despite the traditional view of their worthlessness, gain should be possible in student achievement by their inclusion in the school library, the classroom shelf, and in the curriculum. Comics are appealing reading to all ages, and will be used by students. Especially if that student is part of demographic that may struggle with reading, including teenagers, boys, or lower-income students. Reading comics will lead to students reading more for pleasure, and reading other, more traditional, texts (Krashen, 2004).
In addition, students who read more because they are reading comics will gain more vocabulary, and increase in vocabulary will lead to increased achievement in every other academic discipline (Marzano, 2001, 2003). Comics can take reluctant readers and turn them into volume readers (Krashen, 2004). There are a large number of graphic novels available now that are usable as texts in the classroom (Christensen, 2006), and the number of new texts that are appropriate is growing each year. It is possible for a student who reads a comic every day to read millions of words by the time they graduate school.
The student will gain a better understanding of the inter-relationship of words and pictures, making the variety of possible texts more accessible. The student will be better prepared for the demands of tomorrow in our increasingly information driven society. They may have improved critical thinking skills such as the ability to inference, have a greater portfolio of texts and perhaps world understandings to make connections to when trying to comprehend while reading, as well as other literary skills.
There is no indication that the student will fail to learn to read traditional texts, or come to some poverty of reading skills (Krashen, 2004). Even in the mass hysteria of the fifties, no one could actually quantify any possible harm comics could cause to reading skills. Although all the benefits are not known or comprehensively measured, there is excellent reason to believe that comics are a viable, useful, and powerful tool for classroom instruction.
CHAPTER 3 RESULTS
The Much Maligned Comic Book
It is hard to imagine the difference one person made in the attacks of Dr. Wertham committed on comics as a form of literature. Before, comics were commonplace and their acceptance was widely growing. Many researchers of the time felt they were perfectly normal and potentially beneficial (Frank, 1944; Gruenberg, 1944; Sones, 1944; Thorndike, 1941, Zorbaugh, 1944). Sales were high and the industry was rapidly growing and exploring multiple genres for multiple audiences (Hadju, 2008; Weiner, 2003). Most of all, the academic establishment was quickly realizing the benefits of comics in education through numerous studies in the 1940s, many of which are informational for today. Although there was still resistance, notably from school librarians, comics were on their way as an educational tool (Yang 2003).
Wertham’s campaign against comics damaged its reputation with a fury which lingers to this day. He cemented the view that comics were not only poor literature, but a subversive element. With this schema, introducing a comic book into the classroom would be unthinkable. The enactment of the Comics Code is arguably the single largest act of censorship in American history. This restraint stunted the artistic growth of the comic book as art or literature, and greatly diminished an industry (Hajdu, 2008: Weiner, 2003; Yang, 2003). Table 3.1 below features the 1954 comics code with ratings for general audiences (G) for motion pictures beside it, to give a comparison to a modern content guide.
Table 3.1 Comparison of 1954 Comics Code and “G” Movie Rating Standards
| 1954 Comics Code | “G” Movie Rating Standard |
| Crimes shall never be presented in such a way as to create sympathy for the criminal, to promote distrust of the forces of law and justice, or to inspire others with a desire to imitate criminals. | No comparable rule |
| No comics shall explicitly present the unique details and methods of a crime. | No comparable rule |
| Policemen, judges, government officials, and respected institutions shall never be presented in such a way as to create disrespect for established authority. | No comparable rule |
| If crime is depicted it shall be as a sordid and unpleasant activity. | No comparable rule |
| Criminals shall not be presented so as to be rendered glamorous or to occupy a position which creates the desire for emulation. | No comparable rule |
| In every instance good shall triumph over evil and the criminal punished for his misdeeds. | No comparable rule |
| Scenes of excessive violence shall be prohibited. Scenes of brutal torture, excessive and unnecessary knife and gun play, physical agony, gory and gruesome crime shall be eliminated. | No . . . violence that would cause a parent of younger children to be offended. . . Depictions of violence are minimal |
| No unique or unusual methods of concealing weapons shall be shown. | No comparable rule |
| Instances of law enforcement officers dying as a result of a criminal's activities should be discouraged. | No comparable rule |
| The crime of kidnapping shall never be portrayed in any detail, nor shall any profit accrue to the abductor or kidnapper. The criminal or the kidnapper must be punished in every case. | Possible, although “there is to be no theme that parents of younger children would find objectionable.” |
| The letter of the word "crime" on a comics magazine shall never be appreciably greater than the other words contained in the title. The word "crime" shall never appear alone on a cover. | No comparable rule |
| Restraint in the use of the word "crime" in titles or sub-titles shall be exercised. | No comparable rule |
| No comics magazine shall use the word horror or terror in its title. | No comparable rule |
| All scenes of horror, excessive bloodshed, gory or gruesome crimes, depravity, lust, sadism, masochism shall not be permitted. | A G-rated motion picture contains nothing in theme, language, nudity, sex, violence or other matters that, in the view of the Rating Board, would offend parents whose younger children view the motion picture. . . Depictions of violence are minimal. . .No nudity, sex scenes or drug use are present in the motion picture. |
| All lurid, unsavory, gruesome illustrations shall be eliminated. | See above |
| Inclusion of stories dealing with evil shall be used or shall be published only where the intent is to illustrate a moral issue and in no case shall evil be presented alluringly nor as to injure the sensibilities of the reader. | Possible, although “there is to be no theme that parents of younger children would find objectionable.” |
| Scenes dealing with, or instruments associated with walking dead, torture, vampires and vampirism, ghouls, cannibalism and werewolfism are prohibited. | See above. |
| Profanity, obscenity, smut, vulgarity, or words or symbols which have acquired undesirable meanings are forbidden. | Some snippets of language may go beyond polite conversation but they are common everyday expressions. No stronger words are present in G-rated motion pictures. |
| Special precautions to avoid references to physical afflictions of deformities shall be taken. | No comparable rule |
| Although slang and colloquialisms are acceptable, excessive use should be discouraged and wherever possible good grammar shall be employed. | No comparable rule |
| Ridicule or attack on any religious or racial group is never permissible. | Possible, although “there is to be no theme that parents of younger children would find objectionable.” |
| Nudity in any form is prohibited, as is indecent or undue exposure. | No nudity, [is] present in the motion picture. |
| Suggestive and salacious illustration or suggestive posture is unacceptable. | Possible, although “there is to be no theme that parents of younger children would find objectionable.” |
| All characters shall be depicted in dress reasonably acceptable to society. | No comparable rule |
| Females shall be drawn realistically without exaggeration of any physical qualities. NOTE: It should be recognized that all prohibitions dealing with costume, dialogue, or artwork apply as specifically to the cover of a comic magazine as they do to the contents. | Possible, although “there is to be no theme that parents of younger children would find objectionable.” |
| Divorce shall not be treated humorously nor represented as desirable. | No comparable rule |
| Illicit sex relations are neither to be hinted at or portrayed. Violent love scenes as well as sexual abnormalities are unacceptable. | A G-rated motion picture contains nothing in theme, language, nudity, sex, violence or other matters that, in the view of the Rating Board, would offend parents whose younger children view the motion picture. . . Depictions of violence are minimal. No nudity, sex scenes or drug use are present in the motion picture. |
| Respect for parents, the moral code, and for honorable behavior shall be fostered. A sympathetic understanding of the problems of love is not a license for moral distortion | No comparable rule |
| The treatment of love-romance stories shall emphasize the value of the home and the sanctity of marriage. | No comparable rule |
| Passion or romantic interest shall never be treated in such a way as to stimulate the lower and baser emotions. | No comparable rule |
| Seduction and rape shall never be shown or suggested | A G-rated motion picture contains nothing in theme, . . .nudity, sex, violence or other matters that, in the view of the Rating Board, would offend parents whose younger children view the motion picture. . . Depictions of violence are minimal. No nudity, sex scenes . . .are present in the motion picture. |
Source: Fictitious data, for illustration purposes only
As the above chart shows, there were an incredible number of restrictions on comic book creators. Many of the rules are immediately judgmental, arbitrary, and capricious. Out of 34 rules, the modern code for rating a motion picture G for General Audiences only agrees with the code five times, with another six possible agreements depending on the content in the motion picture. Furthermore, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), which judges the rating individual movies receive, does not actually censor the film. They simply rate it and the film makers may re-edit and re-submit if they so choose. The Comics Code Authority was very direct in what it wanted changed, telling creators directly. These changes often seemed arbitrary and capricious. Comics creator Stan Lee reports being told that he had a smoke cloud from a gun that was considered too big and had redraw it (Lee, Mair, 2002). Gaines left the profession after an attempt to censor a story which featured a black astronaut which he was directly asked to remove but refused to do so (Hadju, 2008).
It is notable that one of the great successes of comics that seemed to escape scrutiny was Classics Illustrated. Classics Illustrated did not submit to the Code by claiming they were illustrated versions of classic books. However, each issue is clearly and obviously a comic and they used some of the greatest talent in the industry including Jack Kirby (Malan, 2006). Although it is not recorded, the reasoning is very obvious. The classic books that Classic Illustrated adapted could not withstand the scrutiny of the Comics Code. The Code would not allow 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, War of the Worlds, or virtually any Shakespeare play, among many other works. For Classics Illustrated to stay in business, they simply could not allow censorship in that fashion.
From their inception with Rodolphe Töpffer, modern comic creators often did not take their own creations seriously; an attitude and general lack of ambition that kept standards and expectations low and was reflected in many comics of the day (Weiner, 2003; McCloud, 2006). A famous meeting occurred between comic pioneer Will Eisner (for whom the “Eisner” awards are named) and comic legend Rube Goldberg (for whom the “Rueben” awards are named) at a dinner party in the sixties. Rube famously laughed at and disagreed with Eisner about the possibilities and potential of comics (McCloud, 2006). This gap between generations was a hindrance to setting a quality standard in the industry. Before the Comics Code, many comics were produced in what could be likened to sweatshop conditions, with quality taking a second place to speed of production (Hajdu, 2008). After the Code, with greatly diminished sales, comics had to significantly improve their product.
Excellent Literature for Reading
“Comics is a powerful idea, but an idea that's been squandered, ignored and misunderstood for generations.” (McCloud, 2000, p. 238) Just like traditional books, much of the question of literary merit relies on the actual book itself. University of Illinois professor Carol Tilley feels this question is only fair if put to traditional texts and picture books as well, “Any book can be good and any book can be bad, to some extent.” (Tilley, 2008, para. 5). That comic books are capable of extraordinary texts is absolutely true (Gravatt, 2005; Weiner, 2006). Further, the sheer number of excellent texts seems to grow exponentially. In Stephan Weiner’s 2006 The 101 Best Graphic Novels, 24 of the books he lists were made before 1990, 28 were made between 1990 and 2000, and 49 from 2000 to 20006. The quality of graphic novels is clearly increasing, and literature that critics agree is excellent is more and more readily available (Gravett, 2005). Krashen makes the following case for comics as educational literature:
The case for comics is a good one:
· The texts of comics are linguistically appropriate, and pictures can help make the texts comprehensible
· Research shows that comics have no negative effect on language development and school achievement
· Comic book readers do at least as much reading as non-comic book readers, and the most recent research shows that they read more overall, read more books, and have more positive attitudes about reading.
· There is strong evidence from case studies that comics can serve as a conduit to book reading (Krashen, 2004, p. 109-110).
Many libraries have certainly come to accept the graphic novel as literature. Articles giving advice on what graphic novels to purchase for a library collection have become commonplace, regular, and unaccompanied by any discussion on why graphic novels are acceptable. They simply are accepted as they are. Libraries have come to accept graphic novels as a staple of literature.
As for material, comics are no longer confined by the Comics Code and as a result we are witnessing the birth of new literature that is deep and profound. Heralded by the Pulitzer Prize winning Maus the graphic novel has numerous and excellent offerings that clearly qualify as literature. Graphic novels lists and review appear in popular periodicals, bookstores and libraries have sections dedicated to them exclusively.
Even in the unlikely scenario of a student who grows up to read nothing but graphic novels, there is already an excellent selection of good literature which is growing at an increasing rate. Comics are accepted both by the mainstream, and by librarians who once criticized them (Yang, 2003). Libraries aggressively add to their graphic novel collections. Cleveland Public Library, for example, notes that such books are often on hold before they have even arrived at the library, that circulation is up and teen readers, who are usually growing apathetic about reading are instead taking out over a dozen titles at a time (Welch & Brown, 2005).
Comics as Tools for Reading Instruction Text
Krashen repeats and expands Wright’s contention that comics have a deceptively high word count, reading level, vocabulary rate and create excellent opportunities for volume reading and acquiring new words (Krashen, 2004; Wright, 1979). Among beginning readers, age 5 to 8, 40% have read a comic book in the last week (Scholastic, 2008), yet the Flesch-Kincaid level of most comics never seems to go under a third grade reading level (Krashen, 2004). It is possible that comics may make challenging texts more accessible to readers, thus increasing reading levels.
Experts agree that comics have the qualities need to be educational literature. Comics have a high word count despite the amount of illustration found inside them (Wright, 1979). Their reading level is appropriate for most students and even students who read on a lower level will attempt comic books. They have a vocabulary that easily rivals adult literature (Krashen, 2004). Inference is a natural function of reading comics (McCloud, 1993; Versaci, 2001). Numerous researchers note that comics attract reluctant readers and support high comprehension of their texts. Comics are also highly versatile, “there is hardly a subject that does not lend itself to presentation through this medium (Zorbaugh, 1944, p. 213.) Finally, comics have and continue to address social issues in a variety of ways. The table below charts the number of researchers and experts who support the qualities of comics in education.
Table 3.3 Educational Qualities of Comics as Literature
| Quality | Researchers |
| Vigorous Word Count & Reading Level | Krashen, 2004; Wright, 1979 |
| High Level of Vocabulary | Krashen, 2004; Wright, 1979 |
| Heightened Level of Inference | Lyga, 2006; McCloud, 1993; Thompson, 2008, Versaci, 2007 |
| Attractive to Reluctant Readers | Cary, 2004; Ching, 2005; Chun, 2009; Crawford, 2004; Foster, 2004; Krashen, 2004; McVicker, 2007; Seyfried, 2008; Snowball, 2005; Thompson, 2008; Wright, 1979; Yang, 2003, |
| Pictures Support High Comprehension | Gorman, 2003; Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003; Krashen, 2004; Lyga, 2004; Seyfried, 2008; Thompson, 2008; Yang, 2003 |
| Addresses Social Issues | Bitz, 2006; Chun, 2009; Gravett, 2005; Sanderson, 2004; Seyfried, 2008; Williams, 2008; Yang, 2003 |
| Teaches Multimodal Literacy | Bucher & Manning, 2004; Chun, 2009; Gorman, 2003; McVicker, 2007; Seyfried, 2008, Yang, 2003, |
Narrative One element common to all comics is narrative, each comic tells a story of some sort (McCloud, 2000 & Chute, 2008). The Maryland Comic Book Initiative study shows that comics are an effective means of teaching individual skills to comprehend narrative (Smetana, Odelson, Burns & Grisham, 2009). This includes basics like plot and setting, as well as more complicated elements like allusion and metaphor (Rudiger, 2006.) This strength in narrative and the prevalence of biography and autobiography in comics makes it a natural to teach and learn that genre.
Inference
The relationship between text and picture provides a level of inference that exists consistently in comics. “This "in-between" space is difficult to identify and varies from title to title, reading comic books requires an active, though largely subconscious, participation on the part of the reader (Versaci, 2001, p. 63).” The grammar of comics, the complex relationship of pictures, panels, words, dialogue, and lettering create a grammar that provides for a heightened level of inference (McCloud, 1993; Smetana, et al. 2009; Thompson, 2008; Versaci, 2001, 2007). Rocco Versaci’s (2007) work shows numerous examples of how comics can transcend traditional literature, providing a level of subtext that is not possible outside of a comic format. By juxtaposing classic texts with classic comic characters and schema, Robert Sikoryak’s work shows that comics can achieve a level of inference and subtext not possible in a traditional text.
Vocabulary
Robert Marzano, a leading expert on student achievement, believes that a necessary component of student achievement is to increase vocabulary (Marzano, 2001, 2003). Marzano states there are two approaches, to provide for wide reading, an assertion shared by Krashen (2004). Comics, with their appeal to reluctant readers and surprisingly high word count, are excellent material for 20 minutes of daily, silent, sustained choice reading that Marzano recommends. Furthermore, Marzano states that direct vocabulary instruction should include visual imagery to be effective (Marzano, 2003). Comics contain visual imagery as a matter of course. Not only are vocabulary words provided in context, but are often accompanied directly by a visual representation.
Nonlinguistic Representation
Another of Marzano’s recommendations is having students use nonlinguistic representations to show concepts, ideas, and learning. Having students use comics as a form of expression works well for this type of activity and allows students to express ideas that would be difficult otherwise or are enhanced with comics. For example, students can go beyond making a timeline of a famous person’s life and instead create a comic that shows the person’s life instead. Concepts that have narrative qualities, such as the life cycle of a butterfly, the order of the planets, the water cycle, the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, the life and time of any historical figure, the order of mathematical operations, the sequence of prime numbers, and numerous other concepts can be translated by students into a comic format.
McCloud (1993, 2006) gives extensive evidence of a visual grammar that exists for comics that can show numerous ideas and concepts in numerous ways. Comics are frequently superior to text to communicating ideas, since they have both the marriage of image and text as well as a specialized visual grammar to illustrate abstract and real world concepts in a two dimensional way (McCloud, 1993, 2006).
Modern and Relevant
Multimodal Literacy
Today, students are do not read only books, but text messages which has its own subculture of vocabulary, web pages which can include elements that shift and change, pdf documents which can include elements that shift and alter, and subtitled information on a growing amount of international content. On the internet they may encounter advertising which may include interactive elements, instructions for a broad variety of devices, extensive lists of codes for games, and a number of forum posts on social networking sites. Furthermore, even traditional documents can now be read on electronic devices which will require interacting with some sort of operational system that is usually icon based. Today’s student will have to know how to relate words and pictures for their upcoming literacy demands. (Teale, Kim & Boerman-Cornell, 2008). “. . .Preteens and teens today are growing up amidst a technological revolution, from digital television to digitally enhanced computer games on the Internet. Unlike any preceding generation, this group of readers is comfortable with non-text visual media and is therefore more at ease “reading” the combination of words and pictures that is utilized in the graphic-style format to tell a story. (Gorman, 2003, p. 20)”
Comics may be the only format available to readily and easily teach a multifaceted literacy that our students will require for future. In particular, comics are permanent, a reader make take any amount of time to understand the comic and review and reread if necessary, something that is not necessarily true with other media (Yang, 2003). Comics thus teach not only traditional literacy skills, but skills that translate into a new era of icons, symbols, and text as well (Mackey 2008; Tabachnick, 2007).
Social Issues
Comics frequently address social issues (Bitz, 2006; Christensen, 2006; Chun, 2009; Kahan & Stewart, 2006). The trend began as early as Captain America fighting Nazi’s before America’s entry into World War I (Simon & Simon, 2003) and Wonder Woman’s creation as a feminist icon decades before the feminist movement (Crawford, 2007), continues through with Spider-Man breaking the Comic Code to tell a story about drug abuse (Thomas & Lee, 2006, p. 14). Today comics books address a vast array of social issues (Kahan & Stewart, 2006) but graphic novels frequently are entirely focused on them (Gravett, 2005).
The already notable genre of autobiography introduces many issues, such as dealing with cancer in Harvey Peckar’s Our Cancer Year and David Small’s Stitches, or Gene Yang’s Chinese Born American which details his encounters with racism in his youth. Communication arts and social studies classes can easily benefit from using such texts as they would any other book. Again, there has been little study here. (Christensen, 2006).
There is very little information available about these, or any other, graphic novels being used in social studies classrooms (except for Maus I and II, which are widely read in studies of the Holocaust), whether they are effective learning tools, or what students think of them. It is also difficult to find reviews of graphic novels that have educational value. However, I strongly believe these books are worth a serious look (Christensen, 2006, p. 227).
The innovation of comic journalism by Joe Sacco in his works Palestine and his recent Footnotes from Gaza have introduced at entire new realm of possible documentary text, which has become a growing genre (McCloud, 2006). Maus is already used in some college courses and is beginning to be found in high school courses as well (Christensen, 2006; Chun, 2009, Leckbee, 2005). It seems a matter of time before other texts are utilized in this fashion by secondary and higher education classrooms. The question is will it be sooner or later?
Micheal Bitz (2006) has run the Comic Book Project afterschool for high schools students since 2003. This project has students creating their own comics from beginning to end. His students often select topics that are important to them to discuss in their comics, such as friendship, popularity, the war in Iraq, Tibet, and environmental issues (Bitz, 2006). Bitz contends that comics not only address important issues, but that the process of creating comics as a group also provides beneficial lessons such as democratic process and collaboration (Bitz, 2006).
Librarian Jonathan Seyfried believes graphic novels are perfect literature to give rich, rewarding experiences to students. “. . . students are ready to engage with intense emotions, emotions that they are themselves experiencing for the first time, but they need appropriate material. . .students crave stories that they can relate to, written in a language they can understand, with jokes they can get, and metaphors that are clear to them. . . Graphic novels provided them with a rich and rewarding literary experience at a time when the duration, vocabulary, and style of prose masterpieces cannot (Seyfried, 2008).”
Finally, given the sheer amount of comics now being translated into other genres, including film, video games, and (ironically) books, there is a new need to introduce comics into our classroom. For good or ill, comics have become one of the cornerstones of popular culture. “Comic book characters have made a place for ourselves in society. Does that mean that we will now find a place for ourselves on the shelves of the modern library? (Foster, 2004, p. 31).”
The recent sale of Action Comics number one for 1.5 million dollars and numerous comic book art exhibitions at prestigious museums is an indicator that this history of culture is of some value. If Speigelman is correct, and comics are a “self-teaching” format (Smith, 2008), then widespread comic use could easily be in our future. In that case, the question is no longer one of preparing our students for the future, but a question of relevance. “At a time when many readers are claiming that reading is on the wane, a literary art form that combines a tradition of excellent, carefully edited text with newly kinetic, eye- and attention-grabbing visuals, could be the salvation of young adult reading (Cart, 2005, p. 1301).”
Comics have the ability to address specific lessons
Table 3.4 Researchers who believe comics address these specific lessons well
| Specific Lesson and Objective | Researchers |
| Inference | McCloud, 1993, Wolk, 2007, Versaci, 2007, Smetana et al. 2009, Thompson, 2008. |
| Onomatopoeias and Interjections | Smetana, Odelson, Burns & Grisham, 2009, Thompson, 2008, McCloud, 2006 |
| Narrative | Smetana, Odelson, Burns & Grisham, 2009, Thompson, 2008, Bitz, 2006, McCloud, 2000, Chute, 2008, Rudiger, 2006, Ranker, 2007, Williams, 2008 |
| Identifying Character Traits | Smetana, Odelson, Burns & Grisham, 2009, Thompson, 2008, Foster, 2004, Ranker, 2007 |
| Problem and Solution | Smetana, Odelson, Burns & Grisham, 2009, Thompson, 2008, Bitz, 2006, Foster, 2004, Ranker, 2007 |
| Looking for Plot Events | Smetana, Odelson, Burns & Grisham, 2009, Thompson, 2008, Bitz, 2006, Foster, 2004, Rudiger, 2006, Ranker, 2007 |
| Point of View | Smetana, Odelson, Burns & Grisham, 2009, Thompson, 2008, Williams, 2008 |
| Summarizing | Smetana, Odelson, Burns & Grisham, 2009, Thompson, 2008, Bitz, 2006 |
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